The only online magazine devoted to the history, art, craft and conservation of stained glass

Stained glass in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: An Overview

Michael Burger, Corpus Vitrearum Deutschland

Fig. 1. Map of Corpus Vitrearum member countries on the website www.corpusvitrearum.org under ‘Member Countries’, red circle: Michael Burger.

The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, located between France, Belgium and Germany (Fig. 1), was not a member of the international the Corpus Vitrearum Medii Aevi / Corpus Vitrearum for a long time. Believing there to be no medieval or early modern stained glass windows there, the country’s admission to the art historical research association was not even up for discussion, as until recently the Corpus Vitrearum only considered works dating up to the year 1800.1

Nevertheless, stained glass plays an important role in this small European country, even helping to shape its identity. Three aspects of the history of stained glass in Luxembourg are particularly noteworthy: firstly, the extensive destruction of church windows after 1789 as a result of the turmoil of the French Revolution, as well as in 1944/45 during the German Wehrmacht’s Ardennes Offensive (Battle of the Bulge); secondly, the abundance of 19th and 20th century glazing, which was highly modern at the time, reflecting Luxembourg’s central location between the major stained glass nations of France and Germany; and thirdly, the government’s efforts after the end of the war in 1945 to promote mainly Luxembourg artists and workshops in the reconstruction of churches.2 The following article provides an overview of Luxembourg’s diverse stained glass landscape.3

Stained glass windows from the 19th and early 20th centuries

The oldest surviving stained glass ensembles in Luxembourg are located in Luxembourg City itself and were created by workshops in Lorraine: Émile Remy (1814‒?) from Nancy created the figurative glazing for the Redemptorist monastery church of St. Alphonsus in 1858, and the Metz studio of Charles Laurent Maréchal (1801‒1887) designed the nave glazing of the former Jesuit and then parish church in 1860, which was later elevated to the cathedral of the Diocese of Luxembourg (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Luxembourg City, Cathedral of Our Lady, nave window with the ‘Flight into Egypt’ by Charles Laurent Maréchal, 1860. Photo: Michael Burger.

Maréchal was the leading figure in French stained glass art in the 19th century. His highly productive workshop, which operated across the region, created numerous, mostly neo-Gothic stained glass windows, particularly in Île-de-France and the Moselle region. It was represented at the 1851 London World Exhibition and was awarded medals.4 For Luxembourg’s most important church, consecrated to the Virgin Mary in 1844 and home to the miraculous image of the ‘Consoler of the Afflicted’ since 1794, Maréchal designed a ten-part cycle depicting scenes from the life of Mary.5

In addition to these two Lorraine workshops, artists and studios from other European regions were also active in Luxembourg in the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Louis Steinheil (1814‒1885) from Paris, who designed the choir window of Echternach Abbey Church in 1880 (destroyed in 1944), Mayer’s Hofkunstanstalt from Munich (Esch-sur-Alzette, St Joseph), Schneiders & Schmolz from Cologne (Clervaux, deanery church) and Camille Ganton-Defoin (1872‒1946) from Ghent (Capellen, St Joseph). Also worth mentioning is the refurbishment of the parish church of St Martin in Dudelange between 1924 and 1927 by the artist and Benedictine monk Notker Becker (1883‒1978), who was a successor to the Beuron School of Art. In addition to large-scale murals, the refurbishment also included stained glass windows symbolising the passage of time (zodiac, seasons).6The majority of the church glazing, most of which is historicist, but some of which can also be attributed to Art Nouveau(Jugendstil) or Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), was created in local workshops in Trier, Germany, just across the border (especially Binsfeld & Jansen)7 or in the studio founded in 1891 by Pierre Linster (1863‒1906) in Mondorf-les-Bains, Luxembourg.8

Fig. 3. Anton Wendling, Design for a nave window with scenes from the Willibrord legend (Willibrord’s consecration as bishop by Pope Sergius) for the abbey church in Echternach. Ink and watercolour on cardboard, around 1934. Archive of the Echternach Basilica.

Two major glazing projects were completed in the 1930s: Firstly, the abbey church in Echternach received new, extensive glazing by the Aachen artist Anton Wendling for the anniversary year 1939 (the 1200th anniversary of the death of St. Willibrord and elevation of the abbey church to the status of papal basilica) with scenic depictions from the legend of St Willibrord. These were deliberately no longer historicist, but ‘newly creative’ (“neuschöpfend”), i.e. in modern, expressionist forms (Fig. 3).9 On the other hand, the cathedral in Luxembourg City, which had become too small, was extensively enlarged between 1935 and 1938 by adding a three-nave transept with front galleries and a polygonal choir room to the east, while retaining the nave (with the Maréchal windows). The latter was given nine tall, three-light windows with an extensive Mariological iconography based on the Litany of Loreto, which also included the fifteen mysteries of the Rosary (Fig. 4). The artists who created these stained glass windows were Louis Barillet (1880‒1948), Jacques Le Chevallier (1896‒1987) and Théodore Hanssen (1885‒1957) from Paris. The glazing of the communal studio is one of the outstanding works of religious stained glass art from the French Art Deco period.10 In addition, there are four windows in the royal gallery designed by Munich glass painter Josef Oberberger (1905‒1994) depicting scenes from the history of the House of Luxembourg,11 as well as two gallery windows and the stained glass in the crypt by Anton Wendling, who was working in Echternach at the same time.12 This meant that several European artists who were to become influential in modern stained glass art were gathered in one place at the same time, and Luxembourg Cathedral became a cross-border meeting and exchange place for contemporary stained glass art (which, incidentally, was ostracised by the National Socialists in these forms).

Fortunately, the cathedral remained undamaged during the Second World War. This is particularly noteworthy given that the loss of church buildings and stained glass windows elsewhere in Luxembourg was considerable. Numerous monuments were destroyed, especially in the north of the country, during the German Wehrmacht’s Ardennes Offensive in December 1944. The eyewitness account of Dean Jean Schiltges, for example, vividly describes how the windows of the deanery church in Clervaux crashed to the ground as fighting raged in the town during Sunday mass.13 Particularly tragic was the demolition of the venerable Echternach Abbey Church by German or American soldiers on 26 December 1944 (Fig. 5).14 The Wendling stained glass windows, which were only six years old, were lost as a result.

Fig. 4. Luxembourg City, Cathedral of Our Lady, choir glazing with scenes from the Litany of Loreto by Louis Barillet, Jacques Le Chevallier and Théodore Hanssen, 1937/38. Photo: Michael Burger.
Fig. 5. The destroyed basilica in Echternach in 1945. Reproduction from: Georges Kiesel and Jean Schroeder, Willibrord. Apostel der Niederlande ‒ Gründer der Abtei Echternach. Gedenkgabe zum 1250. Todestag des angelsächsischen Missionars, Luxembourg 1990, p. 363.
Luxembourg stained glass after 1945

The reconstruction of Echternach Basilica after 1948 was considered a national task in Luxembourg. A ‘Commission de Surveillance pour la Restauration des Edifices Religieux’ was set up to oversee the installation of new stained glass windows, with the specific aim of promoting Luxembourg artists. The stained glass windows were also to be made locally, thereby creating a new branch of art specific to the country. Four French and four Luxembourgish artists were selected for the 39-window Echternach glazing project through two competitions, with Jacques Le Chevallier from Paris being appointed to lead the project. Shortly afterwards, in 1950, he was also commissioned to design the new glazing for the Liebfrauenkirche in Trier, Germany, as a ‘sign of peace between the two nations [Germany and France]’.15

following decades, partly due to the extensive order situation, which continued to follow French influences as well as remaining open to influences from Belgium and Germany. Gustave Zanter (1916‒2001) in particular, who had designed some of the new Willibrord windows in Echternach Basilica (Fig. 6), and the brothers Émile (1913–2004) and Joseph Probst (1911–1997) were extremely productive in the field of stained glass until the 1980s, creating numerous church furnishings in Luxembourg and neighbouring regions. Some of the new windows use prayers to address the painful experiences of the previous war (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6. Echternach, abbey church St Willibrord, nave window with scenes from the legend of Willibrord (Willibrord on Heligoland) by Gustave Zanter, 1951/52. Photo: Michael Burger.
Fig. 7. Ettelbrück, parish church St Sebastian, Sebastian window with a view of Ettelbrück and the Latin intercession ‘Deliver us from hunger, death and war, Lord, Ettelbrück 1944’ by Joseph and Émile Probst, 1948. Photo: Michael Burger.

The new glazing was often accompanied by exhibitions and press coverage (Fig. 8). Meanwhile, the artistic forms of expression in stained glass began to change. From the 1960s onwards, new creations became more linear and graphic (Fig. 9), while in other objects the emphasis was more on colour (Fig. 10). Overall, there was a strong tendency towards abstract, non-figurative works (Fig. 11).

Fig. 8. Newspaper article about stained glass windows by Frantz Kinnen, Luxemburger Wort 117, No. 197, 16 July 1964, online: https://viewer.eluxemburgensia.lu/ark:70795/zk7jd14j6/pages/4.
Fig. 9. Dudelange, St Eligius Chapel, details of the stained glass window by Frantz Kinnen, 1964. Photo: Michael Burger.
Fig. 10. Luxembourg-Beggen, parish church of the Holy Family, stained glass window ‘The World on the Morning of Creation’ by Roger Bertemes, 1964. Photo: Michael Burger.
Fig. 11. Echternach, parish church St Peter and Paul, stained glass window by François Gillen, 1971. Photo: Michael Burger.
The Corpus Vitrearum Luxembourg

The expansion of the Corpus Vitrearum in the 2010s to include all works of stained glass, including those from the 19th and 20th centuries, has now enabled Luxembourg to become a member of the international network of art historians, monument conservators and restorers. Following the 2016 reform of the relationship between the state and the church in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the transfer of numerous church buildings to public ownership, the state-owned stained glass works also came increasingly into the focus of the Luxembourg monument authority INPA (Institut national pour le patrimoine architectural), in order to provide them with internally ventilated external protective glazing (EPG) in accordance with the international guidelines for the conservation and restoration of stained glass windows issued by the CVMA and ICOMOS.16

However, art-historical research into Luxembourg stained glass remains a desideratum. There is a lack of representations of the country’s own holdings in a European context, of contextualisations of Luxembourg stained glass with other genres, especially the graphic arts (keyword: design drawings), and comprehensive studies relating to Luxembourg’s national consolidation, such as the windows of the Deanery Church in Clervaux, which in around 1916 were decorated with regional and national saints.17 It would also be desirable to have individual didactic presentations for a wider audience of complex groups of works, such as the stained glass windows of Luxembourg City Cathedral.

The source material available in Luxembourg is extremely favourable for all these art-historical questions, partly because numerous newspapers and magazines have been digitised (https://eluxemburgensia.lu/), the National Library and the library of the Grand Séminaire – Centre Jean XXIII in Luxembourg have numerous regional and local publications (joint catalogue: https://www.a-z.lu/) and there are workshop archives of stained glass studios in Luxembourg.18

The oldest stained glass window in the Grand Duchy

It can be assumed that there are still many discoveries to be made in Luxembourg, such as the choir window of the parish church in the village of Beyren (part of the municipality of Flaxweiler), which will be presented here in conclusion (Fig. 12).19 The round-arched window opening features a figure in grisaille, which, judging by its style and signs of ageing, dates back to the 16th century (Fig. 13).20 It depicts a bishop, recognisable by his mitre and crozier, holding the wide cloak of his robe together with his right hand. At his feet, an animal (a dog? a sheep?) peeks out from behind the saint. Two inscriptions on the window reveal that the stained glass was ‘restored’ in 1939, which probably refers to the embedding of the older figure in the regularly arranged, tall rectangular blue and white antique glass panes (‘RESTAUR • 1939 • LINSTER MONDORF’). Secondly, they reveal that the bishop figure depicted is supposed to be Saint Erasmus of Antioch (‘S. ERASME O.P.N.’).

Fig. 12. Flaxweiler-Beyren, parish church St Erasmus, view of the choir. Photo: Michael Burger.
Fig. 13. Fragment of a stained glass window from the early 16th century from the old chapel in Beyren, now in the choir window of the parish church of St. Erasmus. Photo: Michael Burger.

In fact, the stained glass window comes from the old chapel in Beyren, dedicated to St Erasmus, demolished around 1860, which was first mentioned in 1570 but which may have been built earlier in the 16th century. Next to this chapel, the hermit Johann Franz Speicher founded a hermitage in 1735.21In 1854, the Luxembourg state architect Charles Arendt (1825‒1910) discovered the work and wrote: 22

Une verrière se trouve à l’ancienne église ou hermitage de Beyren, commune de Flaxweiler; c’est une espèce de grisaille de 0m 47 de largeur et de 2m 40 de hauteur: 23 sur un fond gris, le dessin (qui figure St. Erasme) est exécuté au simple trait, et les ombres sont lègèrement accusées à la teinte de bistre. Une partie de la figure, le bras gauche manque et mérite d’être restaurée.

Cette verrière ne porte point de date, mais les feuilles gothiques de la crosse et la vigueur du trait indiquent que le travail date du moyen-âge (du 15e au 16e siècle probablement). L’expression de la figure du Saint est charmante. Comme la commune de Flaxweiler a en vue de démolir l’ancien hermitage et de construire une église nouvelle à Beyren, construction pour laquelle on a déjà demandé un subside, il serait à désirer que le gouvernement n’accordât ce subside que sour la réserve que l’ancienne verrière de l’hermitage représentant St. Erasme, soit replacée avec soin dans le chœur de la nouvelle église.24

The stained glass window was transferred to the new parish church, built in 1860, along with the chapel’s patron saint, relocated to the central choir window as if it were a relic. This was a remarkable event, which also elevated the stained glass window to an object of national interest, as according to Arendt it was the oldest and only medieval stained glass window in Luxembourg.25

Support Welcomed

Corpus Vitrearum Luxembourg welcomes researchers who wish to devote themselves to stained glass in Luxembourg. Possible topics include studies on individual aspects, for example in the form of art history theses or dissertations, or a general examination of Luxembourg stained glass in the form of a monograph for the CVMA’s international series. Support is also sought for a project application for patronage from the Luxembourg CVMA. After all, cultural heritage can only be preserved if people are aware of it.

For further information, please contact the author of this article: burger@cvma-freiburg.de.

Footnotes

  1. For information on the origins and history of Corpus Vitrearum, see the website www.corpusvitrearum.org under ‘History’ (Brigitte Kurmann-Schwarz; last accessed: 12 December 2025), and: Brigitte Kurmann-Schwarz, ‘La fondation du Corpus Vitrearum. Les rôles de Hans Robert Hahnloser et de Louis Grodecki’, in Karine Boulanger (ed.), Louis Grodecki et le vitrail. Actes de la journée d’études du 22 novembre 2019, Paris, C2RMF, Musée du Louvre, Paris 2024, pp. 26‒36, online at https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04534525v1/document. [↩]
  2. Alex Langini, ‘Glasmalerei in Luxemburg’, in Das Ende der selbstverschuldeten Unwissenheit. Zur kompletten Erfassung der Glasmalerei in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Luxemburg und Limburg/NL, Lindenberg im Allgäu 2016, pp. 97‒102, here p. 101; Michael Burger, ‘Die glasmalerische Ausstattung von St. Willibrord in Echternach 1948‒1952 und der Beginn der modernen Glasmalerei in Luxemburg’, in Die Denkmalpflege 2/2024, pp. 132‒138, here pp. 133f., online at https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/dkp-2024-2005/html (paywall). [↩]
  3. Between 2019 and 2022, the author worked as a freelancer for the Büro Dr. Ivo Rauch, Koblenz (https://www.buerorauch.de/), on behalf of the Institut national pour le patrimoine architectural (INPA), Luxembourg (https://inpa.public.lu/), work which serves as the basis for this presentation. I would like to take this opportunity to thank Patricia Sulser, Elisabeth Koltz, Ivo Rauch and Claudia Schumacher for their excellent cooperation. The Forschungsstelle Glasmalerei des 20. Jahrhunderts e.V. (Research Centre for 20th Century Stained Glass) provides an initial overview of stained glass in Luxembourg on its website (https://www.glasmalerei-ev-web.de/pages/de_lx_alle.shtml; last accessed 15 December 2025), but the database is extremely error-prone.[↩]
  4. On Maréchal, see Elgin Vaassen, Bilder auf Glas. Glasgemälde zwischen 1780 und 1870 (Kunstwissenschaftliche Studien 70), Munich 1997, p. 84f.; Katharina Thurmair, article ‘Maréchal, Charles Laurent’, in Allgemeines Künstler-Lexikon (AKL), vol. 87 (2015), pp. 178f.[↩]
  5. On the construction, history and furnishings of Luxembourg Cathedral see Michel Schmitt, Kathedrale Unserer Lieben Frau Luxemburg (Schnell, Kunstführer 2200), Regensburg 2008.[↩]
  6. Die Düdelinger Kirche und ihre Stahlhuth-Orgel. Mit Beiträgen über Kirchenkunst, Orgelbau und Orgelmusik sowie einer Monografie über die Orgelbauer Georg und Eduard Stahlhut, Luxembourg 2002, esp. Chapter 2: ‘Die Düdelinger Martinuskirche und ihre Kunstschätze’, pp. 27‒141; D. T., article ‘Becker, Notker’, in Allgemeines Künstler-Lexikon (AKL), vol. 8 (1994), p. 173 (the church in Dudelange is described there as Becker’s magnum opus). [↩]
  7. See Li-Pen Yu, Die Glasmalerei in Trier 1860–1930 (Geschichte und Kultur des Trierer Landes 5), Trier 2007.[↩]
  8. Michel Schmitt, ‘Die Glasmalereiwerkstatt Pierre Linster in Mondorf’, in Nos cahiers. Lëtzebuerger Zäitschrëft fir Kultur 23, 2002, pp. 193‒208. This studio still exists today under the name ‘Vitraux d’art Bauer’; see https://www.vitraux.lu/, page ‘L’atelier > Historique’ (last accessed 15 December 2025). [↩]
  9. Nikolaus Goetzinger, ‘Die Kirche und das Grab des hl. Willibrord in Echternach im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert’, in Nikolaus Goetzinger (ed.), Willibrordus. Echternacher Festschrift zur XII. Jahrhundertfeier des Todes des heiligen Willibrordus, Luxembourg 1940, pp. 160‒240, here pp. 175‒184, quotation on 175. See also Alex Langini, Das Leben und Wirken des heiligen Willibrord dargestellt in den Seitenschifffenstern der Echternacher Basilika, Echternach 2008, pp. 9f.; Burger ‘Die glasmalerische Ausstattung’, 132f.[↩]
  10. Jean-François Archieri, ‘La consécration (1932‒1948)’, in Jean-François Archieri and Cécile Nebout (eds.), Atelier Louis Barillet, maître verrier, Paris 2005, pp. 104‒150; Cécile Nebout, ‘Barillet ‒ Le Chevallier’, in Jean-François Archieri (ed.), Jacques Le Chevallier 1896‒1987. La lumière moderne, Montreuil 2007, pp. 14‒37. Unfortunately, the glazing of Luxembourg Cathedral is hardly mentioned in the article by Annette Jansen-Winkeln, ‘Glasmalerei der 1920er- und 1930er-Jahre in Luxemburg’, in Ulrike Degen, Régis Moes and Michel Polfer (eds.), Art Déco au Luxembourg / Art Déco in Luxemburg (Publications du Musée national d’histoire et d’art 34), Luxembourg 2021, pp. 305‒315.[↩]
  11. Michel Schmitt, ‘La Maison de Luxembourg dans les vitraux de la cathédrale Notre-Dame’, in Le rêve italien de la maison de Luxembourg aux XIVe et XVesiècles, Esch-sur-Alzette 1998, pp. 185‒188; Michel Schmitt, ‘Die Fenster der Fürstentribüne in der Kathedrale Unserer Lieben Frau zu Luxemburg’, in: Josef Oberberger. Der Glasmaler, Munich 2005, pp. 39‒51.[↩]
  12. Michel Schmitt, Die Glasmalereien von Anton Wendling in der Kathedrale Unserer Lieben Frau Luxemburg (Schnell, Kunstführer 2369), Regensburg 1999; Michel Schmitt, ‘Die Glasmalereien von Anton Wendling in der Kathedrale Unserer Lieben Frau in Luxemburg’, in Myriam Wierschowski (ed.), Anton Wendling. Facettenreiche Formstrenge, Linnich 2009, pp. 74‒83.[↩]
  13. Joseph Maertz, Luxemburg in der Ardennen-Offensive 1944/45, Luxembourg 81981, pp. 492f.; Michael Burger, ‘Ein lokalhistorisches Allerheiligenbild der Nachkriegszeit in Glas. Die modernen Glasmalereien der Clerfer Dekanatskirche und ihr historistisches Vorbild’, in Hémecht. Zeitschrift für Luxemburger Geschichte 77, 2025, pp. 472‒488, here 480.[↩]
  14. Christina Mayer, Kanton Echternach. Ein Katalog der erhaltenswerten Kulturgüter und Ensembles (Topographie der Baukultur des Großherzogtums Luxemburg 1), Luxembourg 2010, pp. 45f., 66f., 247.[↩]
  15. For Echternach see Langini, ‘Das Leben und Wirken’, 10‒14, and Burger, ‘Die glasmalerische Ausstattung’; for Trier see Liane Wilhelmus, ‘“In der Formensprache der Gegenwart“ und “Als Denkmal der Königin des Friedens“. Die Glasmalereien von Jacques Le Chevallier und Alois Stettner’, in Andreas Tacke and Stefan Heinz (eds.), Liebfrauen in Trier. Architektur und Ausstattung von der Gotik bis zur Gegenwart, Petersberg 2016, pp. 485‒501, quotation on p. 485.[↩]
  16. The CVMA Technical Committee for Conservation and Restoration also serves as the International Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Stained Glass (ISCCSG) of ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites). See the website of the ISCCSG: http://sgc.lrmh.fr/.[↩]
  17. Burger, ‘Ein lokalhistorisches Allerheiligenbild’.[↩]
  18. Numerous designs from the Linster workshop in Luxembourg (see note 8) have been housed in the Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art Luxembourg (MNHA) since 2017, see Jansen-Winkeln, ‘Glasmalerei der 1920er- und 1930er-Jahre’, 313, note 17, and Clara Roca, ‘Des maquettes de vitraux au portrait de Paul Eyschen. L’atelier de vitrail d’art Linster à Mondorf-les-Bains’, in Museomag 03/2019, pp. 14f.[↩]
  19. For the parish church in Beyren, see Richard Maria Staud and Joseph Reuter, Die kirchlichen Kunstdenkmäler des Dekanats Betzdorf (Ons Hémecht 41), Luxembourg 1935, p. 80; Journée Cantonale des Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers du Canton Grevenmacher, Beyren, le 20 mai 1984, p. 46; Gemeinde Flaxweiler, Geschichtlicher und kultureller Überblick, Luxembourg 2015, p. 18.[↩]
  20. Traces of corrosion are clearly visible on the outside of the glass surface, and the paint layers on the inside are also damaged. The window is currently fitted with non-ventilated protective glazing.[↩]
  21. For the chapel see note 18, for the hermitage: Bernard-Jacques Thiel, La vie érémitique au duché de Luxembourg au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle (T Hémecht 7), Luxembourg 1954, pp. 53‒59.[↩]
  22. For Charles (also Karl) Arendt see recently Thomas Lutgen, ‘Charles Arendt (1825‒1910) ‒ Vita. Zum 200. Geburtstag des ersten Luxemburger Staatsarchitekten’, in Hémecht. Zeitschrift für Luxemburger Geschichte 77, 2025, pp. 5‒39.[↩]
  23. Today, the spolia measures 90.0 cm x 44.0 cm (height x width). It is likely that the figure still had an architectural top framing in the 19th century. The entire choir window in Beyren measures 150 cm x 80 cm (height x width).[↩]
  24. Ch. Arendt, ‘Une verrière de l’ancien hermitage de Beyren’, in: Publications de la Société pour la recherche et la conservation des monuments historiques dans le Grand-Duché de Luxembourg 9, 1854, S. 147, online at https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10224718?page=207. Arendt also made a drawing of it, which appears to have been lost, see ibid., p. LVIII, No. 12, online at https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10224718?page=58.[↩]
  25. Ibid., p. 147.[↩]